In an organization, formal communication generally flows in which direction?

Which organisational barrier to goal achievement most directly exemplifies the principal-agent problem in management theory — where individual incentive structures diverge from organisational objectives?

Match the elements of Vroom's Expectancy Theory in LIST-I with their defining behavioral beliefs in LIST-II: LIST-I (Element) A. Expectancy (E) B. Instrumentality (I) C. Valence (V) D. Motivation LIST-II (Behavioral Belief/Relationship) I. Belief that successful performance will result in obtaining specific rewards II. Comprehensive product of E, I, and V that drives goal-oriented behavior III. Belief that effort exerted will directly lead to a specific performance level IV. Personal importance or value assigned to an outcome Choose the correct answer from the options given below: